A team of international researchers has uncovered groundbreaking evidence showing that people in Zhejiang province, southeast China, were fermenting rice into the alcoholic beverage known as mijiu as far back as 10,000 years ago—much earlier than previously believed.
Published on Monday in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, the study details findings from the Shangshan archaeological site in Pujiang County, part of the ancient Lower Yangtze region. This discovery marks the earliest known alcohol fermentation technique in East Asia, shedding light on the complex and innovative process of early rice wine brewing.
“This study provides significant insights into the origins of rice agriculture, early social structures, and the diffusion of technology in East Asia,” said the research team, which was co-led by Liu Li of Stanford University’s Department of East Asian Languages and Cultures and Zhang Jianping of the Institute of Geology and Geophysics (IGG), affiliated with the Chinese Academy of Sciences.
The research sought to address the longstanding mystery of winemaking’s origins—an issue complicated by the volatile nature of alcohol, which makes it difficult to preserve. To find clues, the team focused on the Shangshan culture, which thrived between 11,000 and 8,500 years ago, and is a key area for studying rice domestication and early fermentation practices in China.
The Shangshan archaeological region consists of 21 sites spread across about 30,000 square meters (7.4 acres) along the Qiantang River valley. Excavations in the area have been ongoing since November 2000. Previous studies have uncovered evidence of early rice cultivation, settlements, and a wealth of painted pottery remains.
In 2021, researchers found evidence of beer production at a different Shangshan site, based on pottery sherds dating back about 9,000 years. Unlike wine, beer production involves distinct residues, pointing to rice as a key ingredient in early alcoholic beverages.
For their latest study, the researchers examined 12 pottery sherds dating from the earliest period of the Shangshan site, roughly 9,000 to 10,000 years ago. Using a multidimensional approach, they analyzed microfossil remains on the pottery’s internal surfaces, along with clay and surrounding sediment layers, to determine the contents and uses of the vessels.
The analysis revealed various types of pottery, including those used for fermentation, storage, cooking, and serving. The researchers also found a significant presence of domesticated rice phytoliths (microscopic mineral deposits left behind by plants), suggesting that rice was not only a staple food but also a key ingredient in the production of mijiu.
Further evidence of early fermentation included fungal elements such as Monascus molds and yeast cells, which are traditionally associated with brewing processes. To validate their findings, the researchers replicated the traditional fermentation method using rice, Monascus, and yeast, with results that closely matched the fungal remains found on the Shangshan pottery.
The study also revealed that other cereals, including Job’s Tears (adlay millet) and barnyard grass, were involved in fermentation, along with ingredients like acorn and lily.
Liu and his colleagues attribute the development of fermentation technology to the early domestication of rice and the humid, warm conditions of the Holocene climate, which were conducive to fungal growth. The researchers suggest that fermented beverages, such as mijiu, likely played a central role in ceremonial feasts, highlighting their cultural and ritual significance. This may have contributed to the intensification of rice cultivation during the Neolithic period in China.
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